Zone of Proximal Development

1. Which psychologist suggests using an incentive system, providing individualized help that efficiently supports the learning of each student and using body language to convey behavioral messages as strategies that may decrease off-task behaviors during independent practice times?

A. Lee CanterB. Maria MontessoriC. Albert BanduraD. Fredric Jones

Answer: D - Fredric Jones suggests using an incentive system, providing individualized help that efficiently supports the learning of each student and using body language to convey behavioral messages as strategies that may decrease off-task behaviors during independent practice times. Jones, a psychologist in the field of behavior modification, identifies these as important aspects of a positive classroom management system. Positive classroom management uses reinforcers rather than punishment. Individualized help increases the likelihood that students will understand the classroom expectations and lessons, thus decreasing the downtime caused by confusion. This, in turn, decreases opportunities for misbehavior. Body language allows the teacher to communicate more privately with a student, rather than drawing negative attention to them as a verbal redirect would.

2. Nitza Hidalgo, an educational theorist, tells us that there are the three levels of culture that can be identified as influential in the way students learn. What are these levels?

A. Age, Family and PersonalB. Intrinsic, Extrinsic and EccentricC. Figurative, Literal and ConnotativeD. Concrete, Behavioral and Symbolic

Answer: D - The three levels of culture that educational theorist Nitza Hidalgo identifies as influential in the way students learn are concrete, behavioral and symbolic. The concrete level of culture includes those aspects that are more readily observed among a group: the way they dress, their food preferences and the art forms that they may be identified by as a whole. The behavioral level of culture can be seen as the less visible patterns of action common to the group as a whole, such as speaking a common language, the ways they organize themselves socially and mannerisms practiced by all. Lastly, the third and most abstract of the three, is the symbolic level of culture. This level includes what some might refer to as convictions or beliefs that are seen as the values of a group. These three levels can also be identified within sub-cultures.

3. Early theories regarding the phases of moral development were typically male-centered. Which theorist recognized this and proposed the stages of ethical care to address the phases of moral development as they relate to women?

A. Carol GilliganB. Erik EriksonC. Sigmund FreudD. Maria Montessori

Answer: A - Carol Gilligan used her concept of the stages of ethical care to address the phases of moral development as they relate to women. She felt that the male-centered theories of other professionals such as Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson were insufficient to address the moral development of women, because their psychological characteristics are innately different from those of men. The three stages she identifies in her theory are pre-conventional, conventional and post-conventional.

4. Carefully constructing a seating chart, establishing daily classroom routines and directly teaching the classroom rules are examples of what?

A. Providing differentiated instruction to meet the needs of individual studentsB. Preventative measures that could minimize the occurrence of undesirable behaviorsC. Techniques used to plan instruction and assess student learningD. Applied behavior modification of a target behavio

Answer: B - Carefully constructing a seating chart, establishing daily classroom routines and directly teaching the classroom rules are all examples of preventative measures aimed at minimizing the occurrence of undesirable behaviors among students. These are valuable attributes of a positive classroom management system since they decrease the likelihood of misbehavior BEFORE teacher redirection is needed.

6. According to Piaget, which of the following characteristics is likely NOT indicative of a student that is a formal operational thinker?

A. Aged approximately 11-15 yearsB. Able to logically think through abstract problemsC. Requires the use of math manipulatives to solve math problemsD. Can use reason in hypothetical situations

Answer: C - According to Piaget, a student that is a formal operational thinker would likely NOT require the use of math manipulatives to complete algorithms. Students reach the formal operational stage of cognitive development when they are approximately 11-15 years old. They are characterized by the ability to use logic to solve abstract problems and can reason through hypothetical situations. Therefore, students at the formal operational stage would most likely be able to complete algorithms without the need for manipulatives in order to solve math problems.

7. Which teacher behaviors below demonstrate “with-it-ness” according to Jacob Kounin?

A. Showing up to work on time and going to faculty meetingsB. Having good classroom management skills and well-paced lessonsC. Participating in staff development opportunitiesD. Demonstrating strong literacy and math skills

Answer: B - According to Kounin, having good classroom management skills and well-paced lessons are both teacher behaviors that demonstrate “with-it-ness.” While the other behaviors are also good ones to have, they are not part of Kounin’s theory. Kounin also stated that “with-it” teachers transition their classes smoothly between activities and know what is happening in their classrooms at all times.

8. Andrew, a fourth grader, is showing signs commonly seen in young children experiencing depression. Despite the fact that he is successful in his academics, has a healthy home-life and has all of his physical needs met, he does not appear to have any friends. He cries often for reasons that are unapparent and wanders off to sit away from the other students during lunch and recess. According to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, which of the following needs are likely not being met and are, therefore, hindering his self-actualization?

A. Safety needsB. Esteem needsC. Belongingness and love needsD. Physiological needs

Answer: C - According to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, it is likely that Andrew’s belongingness and love needs are not being met and are, therefore, hindering his self-actualization. The hierarchy dictates that students’ belongingness and love needs are satisfied by participation in healthy, positive relationships with family members, peers and other individuals that they connect with emotionally. Whenever belongingness and love needs are satisfied, an individual can then begin to seek ways to fulfill their esteem needs. Without this satisfaction, it is likely that the esteem needs will not be met either; thus, self-actualization cannot be obtained. Self-actualization involves feelings of fulfillment coupled with developments in specific areas of personal growth.

9. According to Piaget’s theory of development, at what stage of cognitive development are most children in Kindergarten and the first grade functioning?

A. Formal operationalB. Sensory-motorC. Pre-operationalD. Concrete operationa

Answer: C - According to Piaget’s theory of development, most children in Kindergarten and the first grade are functioning at the pre-operational stage of cognitive development. The pre-operational stage occurs around ages 2 to 7 years old and typically involves the belief that other individuals see the world as they do: an egocentric viewpoint. They learn to use language and are capable of representing objects with images and words. Additionally, they can classify objects by a single feature.